1768-1774 Russo-Turkish war – followed by several other defeats on Russian frontier. Selim III (1798-1807) attempted to reform the military, leading to a coup and his execution. 1798 Napoleon invades Egypt – ousted in 1801 by British, Ottoman and Mamluk forces – a period of chaos followed – ended by rise to power of Muhammad Ali in 1805 – acknowledged by Sultan, but essentially an independent ruler. His dynasty lasted until 1952. Annexed northern Sudan 1824, Syria (1833) and parts of Arabia and Anatolia. Western great powers forced him to resign most back to the Sultan. Serbian revolution (1804-15) – Suzerainty of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy acknowledged 1830 1815 – following the end of Napoleonic Wars, European shipping powers and US turn to solve problem of piracy by Barbary states. 1821 Greek revolt – achieved independence with British and French assistance in 1829. 1826 Mahmud II eliminated the janissary corps in a direct confrontation. 1830 French invade Algeria and establish French colony 1839-1876 Tanzimat period – attempt to reform Ottoman state.

1453 Fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Turks 1571 Fall of Venice held Cyprus to Turks 1669 Venice rules Crete falls to Ottoman Turks 1709 Nikolaos Mavrokoprdatos appointed first Phanariot/Fanariot hospodar of Moldavia 1774 Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca ends Russo-Turkish war of 1768-1774 Russia claims protectorate over the Orthodox Christians of the Ottoman Empire Ionian Greeks see it as an opportunity to develop a Greek state independent of the Ottomans under Russian protection 1780 Iosipos Moisiodax, Apology (Vienna) –turn from reforming monarchy to republic – Swiss model 1797 Venetian control of Ionian Islands replaced by French 1797-8 arrest (by Austrians) and execution (by Turks) of Rhigas Velestinlis – Jacobin revolutionary calling for a Hellenic republic based on French constitution of 1793 1798 Paternal Instruction – anti republican pamphlet against Rigas 1798 Fraternal Instruction by Adamantios Korais – rejected religious history of Greek community, offering a secular one ins its place. 1800-1807 Septinsular Republic in Ionian Islands under Ottoman suzerainty and Russian Protection and a new constitution in 1803 1806 publication of anonymous Elliniki Nomarkhia/Hellenic Nomarchy insisting on superiority of non-monarchical government 1814 Philiki Etairia /Friendly Society secret society formed in Odessqa by three merchants; laid ground for 1821 revolution 1817 the United States of the Ionian Islands become first notionally independent Greek state, under British protection following defeat of Napoleon. 1821 Greek war of independence; 1822 first constit drafted 1827 Navarino – Ottoman-Egyptian fleet destroyed by French, English and Russians 1828 Kapodistrias first president 1830 Greek independence recog by France, GB and Russia 1831 Kapodistrias assassinated by Mani clan (whose town was the first to revolt in March 1821!) 1833 Prince Otto of Bavaria arrives as first king 1843 troops of Athens garrison and a popular demo in front of palace force Otto to grant a constit [debates PM Kolettis with King Otto led to coining of term for megali idea – idea of reviving Byzantine empire by estab a Gk state, centred in Constantinople] 1844 constit defines realm as a constit monarchy 1854 occup and blockade of Piraeus by Br and Fr force Gk neutrality in Crimean war 1862 Otto forced to abdicate after uprising Nafplion and Athens [Alfred of GB first offered throne, following referendum in which he was overwhelmingly elected, but he refused] 1863 Prince George of Denmark becomes king of Hellenes [expressed megali idea] 1864 Ionian islands incorp in Gk state. New constit defines regime as a ‘crowned democracy’ [followed Belgium 1831; Denmark 1849; estab in clear terms principle of popular sovty; article 31 all power stemmed from nation; king only had powers confided in him by constit. Single chamber parlt – senate accused of having been a tool in hands of monarchy; 4yr universal, direct elections 1866-9 uprising in Crete fails to dislodge Ottomans 1871 govt grants legal title deeds to peasant squatters 1875 King Geo accepts principle of responsible govt; 1974 plebiscite rejects monarchy

1762 Alliance with France in Seven Years War, leads to military defeats and humiliation (and loss of Florida). 1766 – military defeat lead to domestic unrest – popular uprising in Madrid, Charles III forced to flee – disturbances spread to 60+ cities. Little long term effects. Sources of unrest incl. taxation rises, food shortages, possible that unrest was manipulated by marginalized nobles and clerics. After order restored State accused Jesuits of responsibility for the unrest – accused of a spirit of fanaticism and sedition, false doctrine and intolerable pride.’ Jesuits expelled from Spain and overseas territories in 1767. Bourbon political project of centralization and reform – resisted by those wanting more local independence (such as Aragonese Party – eg Duke of Aranda). Charles III looked for military reform, following Prussian model, plus programme of naval construction – but dogged by poor supply system and excess of officers. Renewed fighting against Britain in 1779 in relation to American Independence- attacking Britain in Central America, Gibraltar, Minorca, and Florida. Peace of Versailles (1783) returned Minorca and Florida to Spanish rule. Charles IV succeeded in 1788. Initial hostility to French revolution, blocking spread of publications, renewal of inquisition. Floridablanca – chief minister – dismissed for intransigent attitude (which compromised Louis XVI’s attempted negotiations. Aranda succeeded and pursued more moderate policy to France. On ousting of Louis XIV in France, Aranda fell and Godoy appointed. Spain was brought into an uneasy alliance with Britain against France. French offensives in Catalonia and Basque provinces in 1794-5 – fall of Vittoria led government to seek terms - surrendered Santo Domingo to France. Forced into a pact with France against Britain. Major losses against British fleet in 1797 (Cape St Vincent), and British blockaded Spain – produced a major financial crisis in Spain. Godoy sacked in 1798, then reinstated in 1800. War terminated with Peace of Amiens – surrendered Trinidad. Blockade resumed 1804, fleet destroyed at Trafalgar. At home yellow fever and cholera epidemics, poor harvests – producing peasant uprisings in 1798 1801, 1804; bread riots in Segovaia 1802 and Madrid 1808. 1807: Alliance against Portugal – then France invades Spain in 1808. Spanish royal family and Godoy looking to Napoleon. Mutiny of Aranjuez: An uprising on 17 March 1808, when the royal family and the government were staying at Aranjuez while on their way south, anticipating a French invasion from the north. Soldiers, peasants and members of the general public assaulted Godoy’s quarters and captured him. Resulting in a coup by Prince Ferdinand against Charles and Godoy – Charles abdicates. French Invasion in 1808, imposition of the Bayonne Constitution and rule of Joseph Napoleon. Only Cadiz holds out. Loss of almost all Spanish empire. Convocation of the Cortez to establish new constitution at Cadiz. Peninsular War 1808-1813 Afrancesados (supporters of the French) saw the French as a chance to achieve enlightenment reforms. Mesta and military orders abolished, convents and monasteries supressed; intro stock exchange and educational reform. Joseph’s power really limited to Madrid 1812 Cadiz constitution – universal male suffrage, national sovereignty, constitutional monarchy and freedom of the press. March 1814 Reinstitution of Ferdinand VII, who rejected Cadiz and declared constitution null and void. Some12,000 afrancesado families forced into exile. 1820 – revolution and establishment of Trienio – three year liberal government based on Cadiz Constitution forced onto Ferdinand – power devolved to moderate liberals – many saw Constitution as unworkable – looking for a constitution similar to France in 1814 – power sharing between King and property owners. The exaltados backed by army and urban masses wanted radical democratic reform and the preservation of 1812 – rivalry produced tension and instability 1823 overthrown by Ferdinand with the support of French troops – re-establishing absolutism with punitive repression of liberals. 123 leaders executed, thousands sacked 1833 death of Ferdinand VII and succession of his daughter Isabella, then 3, under the regency of his wife, (against the pretensions of Carlos Maria Isidro, Ferdinand’s brother – pragmatic sanction (1827) – equal rights of succession overturning Salic Law). 1833-43 Succession of Carlists wars – supporters of Infante Carlos of Spain against liberal forces supporting Maria Christina, the regent til 1840. 1837 new Liberal Constitution - Liberals get power. Juan Mendizabal is appointed PM and enacts sale of ecclesiastical lands. 1840-3 Maria Christina resigns as regent– succeeded by Espartero – whose rule became increasingly authoritarian in the face of Carlist resistance – followed by 6years of instability, reviving Carlist support in the provinces. New moderate constitution 1845 1843-54 Moderates hold power – est legal and institutional structure of centralized state 1849 Democratic Party founded 1854-6 following ‘Progressive Bieno Revolution of July 1854, Espartero and progressives hold power – economic liberalisation After a long period of instability an uprising in 1866 went on to form the basis for the pact of Ostend between progresistas and demócratas against Bourbon supporters. The Glorious Revolution of 1868 overthrow of the regime and the establishment of a new constitutional order, sending Isabel II into exile and founding a ‘Democratic’ constitution. – Amadeo created king of Spain in 1870- but abandoned the country in 1873, declaring it ungovernable and leading to the first Spanish Republic (Feb 1873-December 1874) .. Isabella abdicated the throne in favour of her son Alfonso XII crowned in 1874 resulting in a constitutional monarchy.

Control divided between Austrian dominance in North and Spanish control (post 1738) of Naples and Sicily. Venice, Este and Savoy were independent. 1794 Revolutionary conspiracies repressed in Turin, Genoa, Bologna, Rome, Naples and Palermo. Spring 1796 Napoleon invades – Triennio: Map of Italy redrawn with new constitutions for Cispadane, Cisalpine, Ligurian and Roman Republics, with ratification by popular vote. Flight of King of Naples permits est. of Neopolitan Republic, soon overthrown. October 1797 Treaty of Campo Formio (Lombardo, Emilia Romagna, Veneto and parts of Tuscany, created as a Cisalpine republic (a French satellite); Austria gets Venice. 1798 French occupy Rome and send Pope into exile – when Napoleon leaves for Egypt King Ferdinand of Sicily reinstates Pope; but French occupy Naples driving Ferdinand’s court into exile Spring 1799 French driven out of Tuscany by peasant revolt. French largely driven out. 1800 renewed French invasion of Italy 1802 Cisalpine Republic converted into Italian Republic with Bonaparte as President 1805 – French convert Italian Republic into the ‘Kingdom of Italy’ and gradually expanded. Murat named as King of Naples 1809 Rome re-occupied 1815 Murat overthrown and defeated by Austrians; Congress of Vienna divided Italy between Austria and Kingdom of Sardinia, the Kingdom of the two Sicilies, Tuscany, and the Papal states. 1820-1 Revolutions in Naples, Piedmont and Sicily – inspired by Spanish Trienio. Sicily introduced a liberal constitution that was then overthrown and followed by extensive persecution of reformers. Austrians restore royal power 1831 revolutions in Modena, Papal states and Parma – put down in 1831 by the Austrians 1831 Foundation of ‘young Italy’ 1848 Revolt in Lombardy and Sicily, followed by Tuscany. A constitution was granted to Tuscany. In Feb a constitution as granted by the Pope to the Papal states. The collapse of the Louis Philippe’s monarchy in France triggered further activity. Milan and Venice revolted in March. Charles Albert (K of Sardinia) agreed to lead a movement for unification. Defeated by Radetsky at Custoza on 24 July 1848 1848-9 – initial radicalisation of constitutional states leading to departures of their heads – including the Pope. Proclamation of the Roman republic in Feb 1849. Mazzini appointed chief minister in March. Charles Albert renewed war with Austria but was defeated and abdicated in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel II June 1849 Roman republic supressed by French troops of Louis Napoleon; Venice by Austrians. 1859 -61 pact between Cavour and Louis Napoleon against Austria to establish an independent Italy;second war of independence; Garibaldi’s ‘Expedition of the Thousand’ moves North from Sicily; union of central Italy and South ratified by plebiscites. Kingdom of Italy proclaimed under House of Savoy. 1870 Rome taken by Italian troops.

1787-9 Opening events of the French Revolution, summoning of the Estates General, proclamation of the national Assembly (17 June 1789), Storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789, abolition of the ancien regime 4 August 1789, Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens 26 August 1789. 1791 20 June, Louis and royal family attempt flight to Varennes 1792 War declared On Austria; August, monarchy overthrown; opening of the National Convention ; proclamation of the first republic 22 Sept 1792. 1793 Execution of Louis; reign of terror May 1793-July 1794 1795 proclamation of new constitution and establishment of Directory 1799 Overthrow of Directory by Napoleon – est. of Consulate and introduction of a new constitution 1801-3 Brief Peace of Amiens before resumption of war with Britain. 1804 Napoleon declared Emperor, 1st Empire 1812 Napoleon loses major part of army in war with Russia. 1814 Napoleon defeated at Leipzig, sent into exile to Elba. Louis XVIII comes to throne. 1815 March to July – Napoleon’s brief return in the 100 Days, ending at the battle of Waterloo. Completion of the work of the Congress of Vienna, re-establishing the monarchical order in European states that had fallen under Napoleon. 1824 Charles X accedes to the throne 1830 Revolution – overthrow of Charles; establishment of July Monarchy under Louis Philippe 1848 February Proclamation of the Second Republic; popular uprising ‘June days’; December, election of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte as President of the Second Republic 1851 Louis Napoleon – coup d’etat 1852 Establishment of Second Empire 1870 Proclamation of the Franco-Prussian War; siege of Paris; declaration of the Third Republic.

On 30 November 1813 prince William , son of the former stadholder of the Dutch Republic William V, returned to the Netherlands after having lived in exile for eighteen years. While the nation was gradually being liberated from French troops he successfully negotiated that his territory would be augmented with the Belgian provinces. On 16 March 1815 he proclaimed himself as the king of the United Kingdom the Netherlands. This meant two important changes: for the first time the Dutch people belonged to a kingdom and the Netherlands became twice as big. The union between the Dutch and Belgian people lasted for only fifteen years (1815-1830) and was difficult from the start. One of the main differences was that of religious denomination: Catholicism was dominant in the south, while the Dutch Republic built its system of values on protestant beliefs. King William I tried to create a ‘union complète et intime’, but his attempts were doomed to fail. In 1830 the Belgian Revolution broke out, during an opera performance in Brussels and in 1831 Leopold I was installed to the Belgian throne. William I refused to acknowledge Leopold as the legitimate ruler and tried to restore his power during the Ten Days Campaign (2-12 August 1831) but his attempt failed. In 1832 Belgian troops captured the citadel of Antwerp, which basically meant the final defeat of the Dutch. However, it took another seven years before William I officially acknowledged Belgium as an independent state. From 1830 and onwards Belgium and the Netherlands developed as separate states with different national heroes, anthems, and commemorations. On the Belgium side, the medieval knight Godfried van Bouillon, political leader Jacob van Artevelde, and the painter Rubens were celebrated. Hendrik Conscience published De Leeuw van Vlaanderen (The Lion of Flanders, 1838), a historical novel, which celebrated the bravery of Belgian forefathers during the Battle of the Golden Spurs (11 July 1302). Conscience, and many other authors, paved the way for the Flemish Movement, which strived for acknowledgement of Flemish language and culture. On the Dutch side, national sentiments were also increased by the depiction of great military victories of the past. Authors, intellectuals and painters especially turned to the Dutch Revolt and the Eighty Years War against Spain, which had led to the recognition of the Dutch Republic as an independent state. William of Orange was celebrated as the founding father of the nation, while sea heroes such as Piet Hein and Michiel de Ruyter were considered to be examples of bravery and loyalty. A contemporary hero was Jan van Speijk, who fought against the Belgian revolutionaries. Van Speijk let his ship explode on 5 February 1831 close to the harbour of Antwerp because he preferred to die instead of begin conquered by the Belgians. His last words became famous: ‘I prefer to go up in the air!’. In 1840 king William I was succeeded by his son William II. In 1848 his power was reduced by the Constitutional Reform, which was designed by a commission under the supervision of Johan Rudolf Thorbecke. The ministers became responsible for government’s policies instead of the king. Compared to other European nations such as France and Germany, this was the outcome of a rather peaceful process of negotiations. The king was worried about the violent outbursts in foreign countries, and decided to install a committee which was appointed to develop a new constitution. In doing so, the king not only avoided popular revolts, but also secured the continuation of the monarchy. Only in the second half of the nineteenth century did various popular movements emerge, striving for catholic emancipation, abolitionism, socialist ideals and women’s rights.